Editor's Note:

Relations between China and the ASEAN have continued to improve since the establishment of ASEAN-China Dialogue Relations in 1991. Over the last 30 years, the China-ASEAN relationship has achieved remarkable development and brought about tangible benefits for more than 2 billion people in 11 countries. China and the ASEAN have pursued the right path of long-standing good-neighborliness and friendship, and common development and prosperity. Recently, Global Times reporters Hu Yuwei, Zhao Juecheng, and Li Xuanmin (GT) interviewed Chinese Ambassador to the ASEAN, Hou Yanqi (Hou), in Indonesia, to get more insights from her on the future pathway of China-ASEAN political and economic relations. 

GT: China has signed bilateral cooperation agreements on jointly building the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) with all 10 ASEAN member states. Over the last 10 years, the ASEAN has been a priority direction and important partner in promoting the BRI. What do you think are the important reasons for the ASEAN's significant achievements in the BRI? 

Hou: The ASEAN, as the priority direction and important partner in the co-construction of the BRI, has achieved fruitful cooperation results in the last 10 years. I believe there are several important reasons for this. 

First, China and the ASEAN are connected by mountains and rivers, and have a close relationship. They are also comprehensive strategic partners, with solid political and public support for cooperation in various fields. 

Second, we have been adhered to the principles of "consultation, co-construction, and sharing," and have promoted development through openness and achieved win-win outcomes. We have achieved complementary advantages in the high-quality construction of the BRI. 

Third, we are both determined actors with visions. We prioritize commitments and implementation, ensuring that the achievements of the BRI are tangible and substantial.

The ASEAN has a superior geographical location and plays an important role in regional economic cooperation. But it also faces development bottlenecks such as insufficient infrastructure investment and relatively lagging regional connectivity. The implementation of the BRI has played an important role in breaking these bottlenecks and fully unleashing the development potential of the ASEAN. 

China and the ASEAN have signed cooperation documents on aligning the BRI with the Master Plan on ASEAN Connectivity 2025, thus achieving full consensus on regional connectivity in top-level design. Moreover, BRI effectively fills the funding gap in ASEAN countries' infrastructure construction in areas such as rail, roads, bridges, and ports.

GT: Looking back at the 30-year development of China-ASEAN relations, each time a regional or global crisis occurs, the momentum of cooperation between the two sides becomes stronger and political mutual trust steadily increases. How do you think this enhanced political mutual trust can further strengthen ties? What new positive perspectives can the China-ASEAN cooperation bring to global peace, security, and development? 

Hou: Over the last 30 years, China and the ASEAN have established a dialogue relationship that has withstood multiple tests. Political mutual trust between the two sides has continued to increase. 

We are pleased to see that the positioning of the bilateral relationship has evolved from a partnership of good neighborliness and mutual trust to a strategic partnership, and finally to a comprehensive strategic partnership established in 2021, achieving leapfrog development.

China and ASEAN countries are actively implementing the consensus reached by their leaders, moving forward along the path of good neighborliness, friendship, and common development, bringing tangible benefits to more than 2 billion people in 11 countries.

Currently, amid an increasingly unstable international and regional situation, China and the ASEAN, as emerging economies, share many common interests in global peace and development.

Both sides advocate for dialogue to manage differences and conflicts, uphold true multilateralism and open regionalism and work together to address regional and global challenges. Both sides also promote regional economic integration to facilitate common development and maintain stable supply chains. 

In conclusion, China and the ASEAN are contributors to regional and global peace and security, as well as promoters of development and prosperity.

GT: At the beginning of this year, consultations for the Version 3.0 China-ASEAN Free Trade Area (FTA) officially started, and three rounds of negotiations have been held so far. In what aspects will this version further enhance the level of trade facilitation? What forms of new progress and changes has the China-ASEAN economic and trade cooperation experienced?

Hou: The China-ASEAN FTA was launched in 2002, making it China's first free trade area negotiated with a foreign country and ASEAN's first free trade area negotiated as a whole. Over the last 20 years, the China-ASEAN FTA has effectively promoted the rapid growth of trade and investment between China and the ASEAN, and the socio-economic development of both sides.

As of 2022, China became the ASEAN's largest trading partner for 14 consecutive years, and the ASEAN has been China's largest trading partner for three consecutive years. 

Compared with versions 1.0 and 2.0, version 3.0 will further reduce tariff and non-tariff barriers, promote freer and more convenient trade and investment, and explore strengthened cooperation in new areas such as the digital economy, the green economy, and supply chain interconnectivity, further promoting regional economic integration.

In recent years, as both China and the ASEAN have undergone upgrading in their economies, new trends are emerged. For example, cooperation in the digital economy and green economy is flourishing, becoming important engines driving regional economic growth. China has advantages in digital economy platform construction, as well as in capital, and technology, seeing an unlimited potential for cooperation in digital transformation.

The same is true for cooperation in the green economy. I am pleased to see more Chinese new energy companies investing in Southeast Asia, which will create new momentum for the upgrading of China-ASEAN economic and trade cooperation.

GT: Currently, the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) is in effect in all 15 signatory countries, marking a new phase of comprehensive implementation for the world's largest free trade area. With the full implementation of this agreement, how will it promote trade between China and the ASEAN region?

Hou: The RCEP is a global free trade area with a total population of nearly 2.3 billion, a GDP of $26 trillion, and a trade volume exceeding $10 trillion. It is a significant achievement in the construction of Asia-Pacific regional economic integration and a vivid example of regional countries sharing development opportunities. 

The commitments to open markets for goods, services, and investment by the 15 parties, combined with high-level rules in various fields, will greatly promote the free flow of production factors such as raw materials, products, technology, talent, capital, information, and data within the region, and gradually create a more prosperous integrated regional market.

It can be said that the comprehensive implementation of the RCEP not only creates more favorable conditions for China and the ASEAN to expand trade in goods, but also drives corresponding trade in services, promoting trade facilitation, and improving the business environment. 

China will work together with the ASEAN and other RCEP members to continuously promote the high-quality implementation of the RCEP and make greater contributions to regional and global economic recovery.

GT: What significant outcomes do you think were achieved at the China-ASEAN Foreign Ministers' Meeting held in Indonesia in July? Wang Yi, director of the Office of the Foreign Affairs Commission of the Communist Party of China Central Committee, also Minister of Foreign Affairs, emphasized at the meeting that regional countries must guard against three negative trends concerning peace and security in the region. How do you think efforts should be made to suppress these negative trends?

Hou: The ministers' meeting in Indonesia achieved significant positive outcomes. 

First, the joint statement commemorating the 20th anniversary of China's accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (TAC) was adopted, reaffirming the principles of independence, sovereignty, equality, non-interference, and the peaceful settlement of disputes. 

Second, the second reading of the Code of Conduct in the South China Sea (COC) text was successfully completed, and the guidelines for expediting the conclusion of the COC were adopted, creating conditions for the prompt initiation of the third reading and taking an important step toward its finalization. 

In recent years, amidst the impact of the global pandemic and interference from external forces, these achievements have been hard-won. It sends a clear signal to the outside world that China and ASEAN countries have the ability and wisdom to handle the South China Sea issue through joint efforts, making it a sea of peace, friendship, and cooperation.

Third, comprehensive and pragmatic cooperation has continued to advance, including the promotion of negotiations on upgrading the China-ASEAN FTA.

Regarding the second question, I believe the three proposals put forward by Wang Yi at the ministers' meeting are the answer to restraining these three negative trends. 

First, it is to effectively support the central role of the ASEAN and consolidate the foundation of peace. We should resolutely oppose the acts of certain countries forming cliques, creating new blocs, and pushing for NATO's involvement in East Asia, and truly uphold the maximum common denominator of the ASEAN centrality position. 

Second, it is to work together to build a center of regional growth, continuously advance the construction of the Asia-Pacific FTA, and oppose protectionism, decoupling and disengagement.

Third, it is to adhere to true multilateralism. We should uphold the purposes and principles of the TAC, adhere to the "ASEAN principles" of mutual respect, non-interference in internal affairs, and the proper handling of differences through dialogue and consultation, practice open regionalism and genuine multilateralism, abandon the mentality of binary confrontation, and replace conflict with dialogue and cooperation.

There is an old saying in China: "When the wound is healed the pain is forgotten." It means when a person's scars heal, they tend to forget how they got hurt and repeat the same mistakes. As US President Joe Biden was in India to attend the G20 summit, many people naturally thought of the causes and consequences of the G20 summit held in Washington in 2008.

Currently, Washington is eager to transform the G20 into a "battlefield" for competing with China for influence and boosting US global leadership.

According to a Reuters report on Thursday last week, "US President Joe Biden arrives at this weekend's Group of 20 (G20) meeting in India with an offer for the 'Global South': whatever happens to China's economy, the US can help fund your development.''

The goal of Biden's trip to Vietnam and India, as well as his participation in the G20 summit, is to restrain China. Washington has become so keen to contend with China for influence that it is seizing every chance.

What about 14 years ago?

The G20 was established in the late 1990s after the Asian financial crisis as a forum for developed and developing countries to discuss financial stability. It was upgraded to a summit in 2008. The reason was that the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers in that year set off a financial storm that engulfed the entire West and plunged the world economy into a quagmire. Who would save the West? Who would resurrect the global economy?

Washington turned its attention to emerging economies. As a result, the US became the host of the first G20 summit in 2008.

For a while before this financial crisis, emerging and developing economies accounted for about 30 percent of the global economy. But by 2010, their contribution had reached 70 percent. 

In November 2008, the G20 was upgraded from a meeting of finance ministers to a summit, and in April of the following year, the second summit was held in London. In September of the same year, in the Leaders' Statement in Pittsburgh, the fifth clause of the summit declaration had only two words: "It worked."

Biden and Washington policymakers may have long forgotten this scene. The G20 held two summits and effectively prevented the spread of this financial crisis. One of the main reasons was the participation of emerging economies, represented by China.

The Chinese economy has made important contributions to the recovery of the West and the global economy. World Bank reports show that from 2013 to 2021, China's average contribution rate to world economic growth reached 38.6 percent.

The G20 was intended to serve as a forum for fostering collaboration between advanced and developing countries, allowing both groups to investigate and advance the growth of the global economy on an equal basis.

However, in Washington's view, including the IMF and the World Bank, almost all international organizations are "battlefields," and they must seize every opportunity to win over allies and suppress China's influence, forming an alliance to contain China.

China has never sought to compete with the US for hegemony. "Not seeking hegemony" is the essence of China's peaceful development. China pursues common development. Emerging economies among the G20 members also share the same pursuit as China. They clearly show that they are unwilling to follow the geopolitical baton of the US and the West. The declaration reached now clearly demonstrates this issue.

In less than 20 years since the last financial crisis, the US president is anxiously trying to occupy the leadership position of the G20. Anyone with a basic comprehension of the existing global order can detect Washington's fears.

The latest news from Washington shows that $7.6 trillion of US government debt will mature next year, adding pressure on rates. Does it recall what happened in the US in 2008?

China's Ministry of State Security (MSS) exposed on Wednesday the key despicable methods used by US intelligence agencies in cyber espionage and theft. It also pointed out that the US' infiltration of Huawei headquarters' servers can be traced back to 2009. Despite this, Washington has been attacking Huawei and falsely claiming that Huawei poses a threat to US "national security." Such behavior, characterized by "thief crying stop thief," is a typical American hegemonic behavior.

The US has a notorious track record in the field of cybersecurity. According to MSS, the US intelligence agencies, with their powerful arsenal of cyberattack weapons, have been monitoring, stealing secrets, and launching cyberattacks on multiple countries, including China. The US government, citing national security reasons, forcefully implanted backdoors into the devices, software, and applications of relevant technology companies through acts such as the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act. By using methods like embedded code and vulnerability attacks, the US achieved global data monitoring and theft, leveraging the influence of global technology companies. But even in this situation, FBI Director Chris Wray shamelessly claimed on Monday that Beijing has a cyber espionage program so vast that it is bigger than all of its major competitors combined. The US, relying on the trick of a thief crying stop thief, attempts to distort the truth, confuse the public, and portray itself as a "victim of cyberattacks." Ultimately, the US aims to smear and suppress whoever it deems as opponents and establish permanent cyber hegemony.

In the process of suppressing and sanctioning Chinese tech companies, the US most frequently uses the excuse of protecting "national security." However, the reality is: It is the US that began to invade Huawei headquarters' servers and carry out continuous monitoring back to 2009. Washington, on one hand, has endangered China's national security by hacking Chinese tech companies, on the other, it has repeatedly suppressed Huawei by restricting chip exports under the pretext of "national security." 

Not only does the US exclude various products from Huawei, including telecommunications equipment, but it also requires its allies to exclude Huawei equipment from their 5G network construction. It claims that Huawei equipment may threaten the network security of these countries, particularly in terms of military communication security. The world is witnessing unprecedented technological injustice as the US mobilizes its allied countries to attempt to "strangle" Chinese high-tech company Huawei. It now turns out that Huawei is the victim of US hacking.   

The establishment of a cyber arsenal by the US reflects a very important security concept. It is that in the most essential elements of national power, the US must be in an absolute dominant position and must be in a position that no other country can match. This applies to the economic aspect, and it also applies to the cyber field. This is an inherent behavioral pattern for the US.

Facing such a situation, what should China do? One approach is to strengthen its own capacity building in the cyber security field, and it needs to accelerate development as much as possible. The other is to expose to the maximum extent the destructive actions of the US in this field toward the world, the global community, China, US allies and even American citizens. Let more people in the world understand how the US operates, and how despicable and disgraceful it is.

The US' malpractices in cyberattacks and surveillance are too numerous to count. The various actions of the US are aimed at pushing the world toward "permanent digital hegemony" for the US. The US is the global enemy of cyber security, yet it pretends to be the "guardian" of international cyber security. Its domineering and hypocritical nature has been exposed and condemned by the world.

The sudden large-scale attack by the Palestinian Islamic Resistance Movement (Hamas) on Israel has sent shockwaves throughout the Middle East and the world.

Hamas has demonstrated remarkable secrecy and executed a sudden and powerful attack, catching Israel's Mossad and the US Central Intelligence Agency off guard. Not only did Hamas launch thousands of rockets, but they also conducted large-scale infiltration into territory controlled by Israel. In the eyes of the US and Israel, Hamas is seen as a "ragtag" band of terrorists, but their ability to organize such a massive operation without leaking any information is highly impressive and challenging.

Israel has suffered significant losses this time, with at least 100 people killed on the first day and approximately 900 injured. Moreover, videos have been released by Hamas showing captured Israeli soldiers. Hamas announced they captured the Israeli Army commander, Nimrod Aloni. Additionally, around 50 Israelis have been taken hostage, making these captives and hostages bargaining chips in the hands of Hamas. This situation is unprecedented in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Israel is likely to carry out retaliation actions that go beyond airstrikes, and a ground offensive is highly possible. Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has already announced that "our enemies will pay an unprecedented price." However, Israel will face challenges in targeting effectively because Hamas is not the same as the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) of the past; they excel in urban guerrilla warfare with high flexibility. Besieging Hamas, as Israel did in Lebanon with PLO in 1982, will be difficult, and extensive bombings may harm many civilians, leading to international condemnation. Therefore, how Israel conducts its operations, from planning to execution, presents a significant challenge.

Many people ask why Hamas launched a comprehensive attack at this time. What triggered this attack is most likely the recent continuous small-scale conflicts between Israel and the Palestinians. Hamas wants to "settle the score" with Israel. However, from a strategic perspective, this is a decisive resistance by the Palestinians against the continuous development of the Middle East situation toward sacrificing Palestinian interests. During the Donald Trump era, the US shifted from mediating the Israeli-Palestinian conflict to a more explicit tilt toward Israel. In addition, more and more Arab countries are reconciling with Israel. Currently, the US is pushing for the normalization of relations between Israel and Saudi Arabia. The Palestinians cannot defeat Israel on their own, but they need to "create a scene" to break the current situation in the Middle East.

As long as there is conflict between Israel and Palestine, the vast majority of Arabs in the Middle East will naturally sympathize with the Palestinians. Emotionally, they cannot lean toward Israel, which will put pressure on Arab governments in the Middle East that hold a moderate attitude toward Israel.

Regarding the Middle East issue, there are different opinions. Overall, Israel wants to maintain a peace based on the existing reality. In the past, the entire Arab world supported the Palestinians in fighting against Israel, but now the Palestinians are almost fighting alone. The Palestinians are quite pitiful. Although the State of Palestine has been established and recognized by many countries, Palestinians' land is still occupied by Israel, and their sovereignty is incomplete. A large number of Palestinians live in refugee camps. They are a vulnerable group in the international community, and their grievances and anger are much greater than those of the powerful Israelis.

In another ambitious step toward becoming a strong space power in the world, China will fully kick off the research and development of its Phase-4 lunar research project and planetary exploration project, as well as the development of the Chang'e-7 and Tianwen-2 probes, deputies of the national legislature political advisors from the space sector told the Global Times on Sunday during the ongoing two sessions. 

More than 60 launches are scheduled for the Long March carrier rocket series in 2023, and another major rocket family for commercial spaceflights - the Kuaizhou - will also have a tight schedule with 8-10 launches expected this year, the Global Times has learned from Feng Jiehong, a deputy to the 14th National People's Congress (NPC) and head of Aerospace Sanjiang, a subsidiary of China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation.

The new-generation manned launch vehicle is set to make its maiden flight by 2027, while the new super heavy-lift carrier rocket - the Long March-9 - will debut around 2030, the Global Times has learned. 

Following the completion of its basic structure assembly, the China Space Station has entered normal operations mode and will welcome onboard the Xuntian space telescope before 2026, a task to be undertaken by a Long March-5B carrier rocket, Rong Yi, chief designer for the Long March-2F launch vehicle and a member of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) National Committee, told the Global Times. 

As for commercial spaceflight in China, market demand has been growing rapidly in recent years. According to an Iresearch survey, China has announced 12 plans for small satellite constellation networks in the next five to 10 years, which will comprise more than 2,200 satellites. They are mainly remote sensing and communication satellites. 

If 8-10 satellites are released each launch, it will take nearly 300 missions to complete the task. 

In addition to the Jielong-3 solid-propellant rocket, the Long March-2C and Long March-11 will undertake international commercial spaceflight missions, Wang Xiaojun, head of the state-owned China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology, told the Global Times. 

Wang revealed that China is developing a next-generation manned launch vehicle that will meet the long-term strategic need for manned lunar exploration. It will be capable of sending payloads of 70 tons into near-Earth orbit, and is expected to make its maiden flight by 2027.

It will be used to send a lunar surface lander and lunar landing spacecraft to the Lunar Transfer Orbit (LTO) using liquid hydrogen, liquid oxygen and kerosene propellants, capable of carrying payloads of no less than 27 tons to the LTO. 

It will serve as an important strategic support to realize China's manned landing on the moon by 2030. 

Rong disclosed that a new-generation manned spacecraft and a moon lander are being developed. The spacecraft will be able to accommodate three astronauts to the LTO and return them to Earth, while the lander could allow two people to carry out scientific experiments on the lunar surface. 

The Earth-Moon space has become a new territory of manned activities in space for its rich material resources and unique environmental resources, which could become a new pillar of the national economy in the future as well as the "best sample" for studying the origin and evolution of the Earth. 

Yang Mengfei, chief engineer of the Chang'e-5 probe and member of the CPPCC National Committee, proposed at this year's two sessions that China should grasp this opportunity and build Earth-Moon space infrastructure to utilize those resources, which China has already has the ability to do. 

The new model super heavy-lift carrier rocket - the Long March-9 - is also under development. It will be a 10-meter-diameter, three-stage mega rocket with a height of 110 meters, capable of sending payloads of 150 tons into near-Earth orbit, 50 tons into the LTO and 35 tons to the Mars Transfer Orbit. The first flight of the Long March-9 vehicle can be expected around 2030.

In this year's government report delivered by Premier Li Keqiang at the first session of the 14th NPC on Sunday, Li elaborated on the fruitful achievements made in scientific and technological innovation in the past years including in areas of manned spaceflight, lunar and Martian exploration, and satellite navigation. 

A group of diplomats from nine countries, including Fiji, Mongolia and the Seychelles, visited northwest China's Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region from Monday to Saturday to discover the beauty of this stunning part of China.

In the six days, they visited several iconic sites in Xinjiang, including the International Grand Bazaar in Urumqi, the world heritage site of Tianchi Lake, the Grape Valley in Turpan, and the ancient city of Kashgar.

Xinjiang is a wonderous place with majestic scenery, friendly residents, and fully protected traditional culture, and it is worth being recommended to the whole world, the diplomats said.

MAJESTIC SCENERY

Crystal Gale P. Dampil, a diplomat of the Philippines in China, said this was her first trip to Xinjiang, and she grew excited about her tour as she looked out of the airplane window at the beautiful scenery below.

Anne Lafortune, ambassador of Seychelles to China, said Tianchi Lake is one of the most beautiful places she has ever seen, and she will happily act as an 'ambassador' for Xinjiang, recommending it to her friends.

Lafortune said she looks forward to more exchanges between the two countries in the future so that more tourists from Seychelles will visit Xinjiang.

Lafortune was also deeply impressed by the fruit grown in Xinjiang. She said she has never had such sweet fruit, and it will surely be one of the enduring memories of her life.

While visiting the ancient city of Kashgar, Tuvshin Badral, Mongolia's ambassador to China, joined in experiencing the making of nang, a kind flatbread typical of the region. He said that Xinjiang's food is varied and tastes great, adding that he hopes the two countries will have more food and cultural exchanges in the future.

FRIENDLY PEOPLE

While visiting Turpan, Ben Yacoub Adel, a counselor with the Tunisian Embassy in China, said he could feel the optimism and friendliness of the people of Xinjiang, both in their homes and in the streets.

In the ancient city of Kashgar, Luis Lopez, an Ecuadorian diplomat in China, was invited to dance with a young boy by the roadside. Their dancing attracted many tourists, who gathered around and took photos.

Lopez said that the people in Kashgar are full of energy and their dancing is very distinctive. He said he could see many fine qualities of Chinese culture in the peaceful and happy lives of the local people of all ethnic groups.

Wherever the group went in Xinjiang, they were warmly welcomed by local residents, said Jong Hyon U, a minister of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea's Embassy in China.

FULLY PROTECTED CULTURE

The delegation also visited the Xinjiang Museum, which boasts a collection of precious artifacts unearthed in Xinjiang. The artifacts capture the precious moments of history and the museum has preserved them well, said Manasa R. Tagicakibau, Fiji's ambassador to China.

While visiting a Buddhist grottoes site in Turpan, the group hailed China's efforts on protecting cultural heritage. Tuvshin Badral of Mongolia said the grottoes, built a thousand years ago, are milestones of history, incorporating religions and cultures, and China's experience in the preservation of cultural relics is worth learning from.

The delegation also visited a village known for making ethnic musical instruments for over 150 years. Keri Abrams, a diplomat of Guyana in China, said she truly felt the charm of intangible cultural heritage as she watched the traditional cultural program performed with unique Chinese instruments. China's efforts on protecting and developing cultures deserve praise, she said.

Thanks to the Chinese government's inheritance and protection of intangible cultural heritage, the traditional music and the exquisite instruments have been well preserved, said Manasa R. Tagicakibau of Fiji, adding that he hopes this valuable experience will be used as a point of reference around the world.

BALTIMORE — For centuries, clashes between science and religion have made waves within society at large and in the academic world. You probably haven’t heard very much, though, about similar clashes between science and history.

Yet scientists and historians have fundamentally different perspectives on history, especially when it’s the history of science. Scientists tend to celebrate the discoveries of the past that built the knowledge of the present. Historians argue that the scientists of the past should be viewed through the lens of their own time, not evaluated on the relevance of their work to today’s textbooks.

One prominent physicist who objects to the historians’ modus operandi is Nobel laureate Steven Weinberg of the University of Texas at Austin. His 2015 book To Understand the World unabashedly analyzes the scientific past in the light of the present. “I knew from the beginning that I was being naughty,” Weinberg said March 14 at a meeting in Baltimore of the American Physical Society.

In technical terms, Weinberg was engaging in “Whig” history (an allusion to criticisms of British historical accounts involving a prominent political party). Whig historians write (or rewrite) history as a story validating the chain of events that created present-day circumstances. Most historians argue that such an approach distorts the record of the past. Much of what happened in the past had little to do with how things are now, and historical actors certainly had motives other than creating a future they couldn’t even have imagined. “We don’t want to read history only from the winners’ point of view,” commented historian David Wootton, also speaking at the physical society meeting.

But limiting historical accounts to evaluating the past “on its own terms,” without admitting current knowledge into evidence, misses much of the story, Weinberg asserts.

And as Weinberg points out, it’s often hard to understand the past on its own terms anyway. Especially when studying early Greek philosophers, it’s impossible to know very much about the conditions under which they worked and the influences that shaped their thought. Even many of their own writings are missing or fragmentary.

“Our knowledge of present science provides a contrast to the attitudes and methods of the past, attitudes and methods that often obstructed progress,” Weinberg said.
Of course, the notion of progress itself is one of those concepts that some historians deny; it implies a value judgment that things now are somehow better than they used to be. But in science, progress of some sort is very hard to deny. Wootton, the historian, agrees with Weinberg on that point. Wootton believes many historians go too far in denying the notion of progress in many fields, with science being the most prominent example.

“The progress has been real and needs to be studied and explained,” Wootton said. “Understanding the past in its own terms is not enough” — a point he also makes in his recent book The Invention of Science.

Other historians view their task more narrowly, insisting that scientists of the past should be studied in light of their efforts to solve the problems posed in their own day within their own worldview. But that is not the story of science’s past that interests Weinberg.

He agrees that early scientists dealt with different problems. “Scientists of the past were not just like scientists of today who didn’t know as much we know. They had completely different ideas of what there was to know, or how you go about learning it,” he said. “But the point of scientific work is not to solve the problems that happen to be fashionable in your own day — it is to learn about the world.”

So that makes the stories that historians like to tell irrelevant (to him).

“It is the history of the change in the attitudes of what was there to know, and how do you find it out, that seems to me the most interesting … story.” That’s the story, Weinberg believes, that helps in understanding how science has succeeded and perhaps even helps identify present-day mistakes.

“The real story is the progress of science from an earlier day when the most intelligent and well-informed people in the world did not know how to address the mysteries of nature,” he said. “We’re certainly not finished, and we’re undoubtedly still making mistakes. But we have amassed a large amount of reliable knowledge, and more important we have developed techniques for deciding when knowledge really is knowledge or just a mistake. It is a great story. It’s not at an end. But we have learned some things, and if we don’t use the things that we have learned, then the story we tell has no point.”

Scientists have discovered how one microbe plays it cool.

Until now, it was a mystery how Pseudomonas syringae bacteria turn water into ice at temperatures above a normal freezing point. P. syringae pulls off its cool trick by rearranging nearby water molecules, researchers in the United States and Germany report online April 22 in Science Advances. This chill ability makes the microbes useful in making artificial snow at ski resorts.

Researchers knew that a particular protein on the microbes’ membranes was somehow responsible for making ice form. The team found that this ice nucleation protein, inaZ, acts as a mold for ice crystals. Alternating water-repelling and water-attracting parts of the protein tug nearby water molecules into an orderly, icelike arrangement. Once arranged into an ice-promoting formation, water molecules can quickly disperse heat energy.
This alignment process becomes more prominent as water temperatures drops toward 5˚ Celsius, a degree above the freezing point of the water the team used in their experiment (which contained a heavy form of hydrogen). Outside the lab, P. syringae can crystallize water at around –2˚ C, several degrees above the temperature at which ice crystals commonly form.

Understanding how P. syringae freezes water could inform science beyond the slopes. In gardens, the bacteria can wreak havoc on frost-sensitive plants. And ice-forming bacteria play an important role in climate by affecting patterns of cloud formation and precipitation, the researchers say.

The galaxy is starting to feel a little crowded. Over 1,000 planets have just been added to the roster of worlds known to orbit other stars in the Milky Way, researchers announced May 10 at a news briefing. This is the largest number of exoplanets announced at once.

Most of the 1,284 worlds are larger than Earth but smaller than Neptune. Many of those are probably big balls of gas. But over 100 of the new discoveries are smaller than 1.2 times the diameter of Earth. “Those are almost certainly rocky in nature,” said Timothy Morton, an astrophysicist at Princeton University. Nine planets also lie within the habitable zone, the distance from the star where liquid water could conceivably collect on the surface of the planet. Morton and colleagues detail their findings in the May 10 Astrophysical Journal.
This announcement roughly doubles the number of planets discovered by NASA’s planet-hunting workhorse, the Kepler space telescope, which has now found 2,325 exoplanets. Kepler spent nearly four years staring at about 150,000 stars in the constellations Cygnus and Lyra, watching for subtle dips in starlight as planets crossed in front of their suns. While Kepler has since moved on to other investigations (SN: 6/28/14, p. 7), this latest haul comes from those first four years of observing.

The planet bonanza comes courtesy of a new statistical calculation that allows researchers to feel confident that a detection is a real world. Impostors such as companion stars can mimic the signal from a planet. Traditionally, each planet candidate must be followed up with intensive observations from ground-based telescopes. But with over 4,000 candidates in the queue, confirming each one would take a long time. The calculation takes into account the details of how a passing planet should dim and brighten the starlight along with how common impostors should be and provides a reliability score for each candidate. Planets in this study are those whose score is greater than 99 percent.

Techniques such as these should help confirm planets detected by upcoming missions such as the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite, scheduled to launch in late 2017. Some of those planets found by TESS will in turn come under the gaze of the James Webb Space Telescope, which will launch in 2018 and investigate their atmospheres (SN: 4/30/16, p. 32).

Editor’s Note: This story was updated May 17, 2016, to correct the key in the graphic to indicate that previously detected planets include all transiting planets discovered, not just the ones found by Kepler.

A form of multicellular life visible to the naked eye may have emerged nearly a billion years earlier than scientists once thought.

At 1.56 billion years old, fossils discovered in north China represent the best evidence yet for the early existence of large eukaryotes, paleobiologist Maoyan Zhu of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Nanjing and colleagues report May 17 in Nature Communications.

Eukaryotes, which have cells containing nuclei and other membrane-wrapped machinery, include everything from plants to people. The new find could mark when single-celled eukaryotes became multicellular organisms capable of drawing energy from the sun, says geobiologist Shuhai Xiao of Virginia Tech in Blacksburg, who was not involved in the research. “That’s why it’s important,” he says. “The fossils represent one of the major transitions in evolution.”
Remains of early life on Earth are scarce and sometimes hard to interpret (SN: 2/8/14, p. 16). Some scientists point to evidence of life from as early as 3.8 billion years ago; rocks in Greenland, for example, contain traces of carbon that could be cellular remnants. Harder evidence for microbes comes from what appear to be fossils of actual cells speckling 3.4-billion-year-old sandstone in Australia.

Signs of multicellular life crop up later in the fossil record, roughly 1.2 billion years ago, Zhu says. But until now, clear evidence for large-scale multicellular organisms, like the ones Zhu’s team reports, date back just 635 million years. The team’s new find — consisting of 167 fossils, some up to 30 centimeters long and 8 centimeters wide (roughly the size of a man’s footprint) — places these life-forms much further back in time, when Earth was hot and oxygen was scarce.

The fossils are compressions: cells squashed flat into ribbons — like a garden hose crushed beneath a car’s tire, or like kelp. In fact, the organisms may have looked “very similar to some algae living in the shallow sea today,” Zhu says.

After stretching ropy bodies along the shore, the ancient sea life was preserved in layers of mudstone. Inside the stone, the researchers found closely packed cells and organic carbon, evidence of cellular remains. Zhu can’t explain why such a large time gap exists between his find and similar large-scale fossils, but he suspects the problem may be with preservation of such old material.

Scientists once considered the time period when these organisms lived to be the “boring billion,” though that view seems to be shifting (SN: 11/14/15, p. 18). People thought that “there was very little evolutionary change, and not much going on geochemically,” Xiao says. The new work “tells us a different story.”